Binary Math

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Calculating IPv4 Subnets and Host

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VLSM (Variable length Subnet Masks) Class-based networks are inefficient The subnet mask is based on the network class Allow network administrators to define their own masks Customize the subnet mask to specific network requirements Use different subnet masks in the same classful network 10.0.0.0/8 is the class A network - 10.0.1.0/24 and 10.0.8.0/26 would be VLSM Number of subnets = 2 subnet bits Hosts per subnet = 2 host bits - 2
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Spanning Tree Protocol

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Loop protection Connect two switches to each other They'll send traffic back and forth forever There's no "counting" mechanism at the MAC layer This is an easy way to bring down a network And somewhat difficult to troubleshoot Relatively easy to resolve IEEE standard 802.1D to prevent loops in bridged (switched) networks (1990) Switch operation Forwarding decisions made by MAC address Keeps a big table of MAC address that have been seen All forwarding decisions are filtered through this list If the destination MAC is unknown, the frame is flooded Sent to every switch port in the local subnet/VLAN Hopefully the destination station will respond Flooding is hopefully a temporary process Directed traffic resumes when the MAC is seen STP port states Blocking - Not forwarding to prevent a loop Listening - Not forwarding and cleaning the MAC table Learning - Not forwarding and adding to the MAC table Forwarding - Data passes through and is fully operational Disabled - Admini...
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Unicasts, Multicasts, and Broadcasts

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Unicast One station sending information to another station Send information between two systems Web surfing, file transfers Does not scale optimally for streaming media Multicast Delivery of information to interested systems One to many Multimedia delivery, stock exchanges Very specialized Difficult to scale across large networks Broadcast Send information to everyone at once One packet, received by everyone Limited scope - the broadcast domain Routing updates, ARP requests Not used in IPv6 - focus on multicast
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